Western Europe

It began like the common cold. Within a day, however, the body was wracked with fever. Black swellings the size of baseballs appeared on the neck and, finally, a highly contagious bloody cough quickly sealed the victim's fate. When it was finally over,...

This biography of Napoleon Bonaparte focuses on his rise to power in France as First Consul of the Republic and his series of wars against the other powers of Europe during the early 19th century. The biography also addresses the Napoleonic Code, a...

This biography of the 17th century English monarch William III focuses on his participation in a series of wars against King Louis XIV of France and his ascension to the throne of England during the Glorious Revolution. William III, however, is most...

This biography of the 17th century philosopher and mathematician René Descartes focuses on his contributions to the natural sciences. As described in his book Discourse on the Method, Descartes insisted that the act of thinking proved one's own...

This biography of the 17th century scientist Isaac Newton focuses on his contributions to the fields of both physics and astronomy. Newton's Principia describes his law of universal gravitation and his three laws of motion. Ultimately, the observations...

This biography of the 17th century scientist Gaileo Galilei focuses on his contributions to the field of astronomy. Based on his observations of the phases of Venus and the moons of Jupiter, Galileo insisted that the centuries-old geocentric model of...

This biography of the 16th century French explorer Jacques Cartier focuses on his early experience as a sailor in the waters off Newfoundland, his explorations of St. Lawrence Bay, and his voyages up the Saint Lawrence River. Ultimately, Cartier's...

This biography of the 16th century English monarch Elizabeth I focuses on her role in establishing England as a world power. Beginning with her efforts to thwart her Catholic half-sister Mary and her eventual rise to the throne of England, the biography...

This biography of the 16th century Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan focuses on his attempt to circumnavigate the globe in the service of the Spanish crown. The biography details the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, which theoretically divided...

This biography of the 15th century Italian explorer Christopher Columbus focuses on his proposal to secure trading routes with Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic Ocean. Instead, however, Columbus arrived on the island of Hispaniola and laid the...

This biography of the 16th century Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés focuses on his conquest of the Aztec Empire and its impact on the indigenous peoples of the region.   The biography includes a series of questions based...

This biography of the 16th century Spanish theologian St. Ignatius of Loyola focuses on his early years as a soldier, his religious conversion, and his role in the formation of the Society of Jesus.   The biography includes a series of...